Author: Admin

📌 Notes

Experimental methods are the cornerstone of quantitative psychology. They are designed to establish causation — determining whether changes in one variable directly cause changes in another.

Key Types of Experiments:

1. Laboratory Experiments
   • Conducted in controlled environments.
   • High internal validity, low ecological validity.
   • Example: Loftus & Palmer (1974) — the effect of leading questions on memory.
2. Field Experiments
   • Conducted in real-world settings.
   • Higher ecological validity, less control.
   • Example: Piliavin et al. (1969) — helping behaviour on the New York subway.
3. Natural/Quasi-Experiments
   • IV not manipulated by the researcher but naturally occurring.
   • Example: Charlton et al. (2002) — effect of television introduction on aggression in children.

Core Process:

• Hypothesis formation → Operationalization of variables → Random assignment → Manipulation of IV → Measurement of DV → Statistical analysis → Conclusion.

Strengths:

• Establishes cause-and-effect relationships.
• Replicable and objective.
• Allows control of confounding variables.

Limitations:

• Artificial environments can reduce ecological validity.
• Demand characteristics and experimenter bias may influence results.
• Ethical considerations when manipulating variables affecting participants.

📌 Notes

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

• Data (transcripts, notes, recordings) are analyzed iteratively—collection and analysis occur simultaneously.
• The goal is meaning-making, not measurement.
• Coding is central: segments of text are labeled with categories or “codes.”
• Codes are grouped into themes that explain behaviors, attitudes, or processes.
• Methods include:
  • Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)
  • Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
  • Content Analysis (Berelson, 1952)

Approaches to Coding

Approach	Process	Example
Inductive	Codes emerge from data without a prior framework.	Interviews with teachers reveal “emotional exhaustion” → theme arises naturally.
Deductive	Uses theoretical constructs to guide coding.	Using Bandura’s SCT categories: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
Hybrid	Combines inductive and deductive methods for flexibility.	Pre-set codes guide analysis, but new themes also allowed.

📌 Notes

Purpose of Qualitative Data Collection

• Focuses on in-depth understanding of experiences and social interactions.
• Seeks rich, descriptive data to interpret meanings rather than measure variables.
• Methods are flexible and iterative—data collection and analysis often occur simultaneously.

📌 Comparison with Quantitative Research

Method	Description	Strengths	Limitations
Interviews (Semi-Structured/Unstructured)	Open-ended discussions exploring individual perspectives.	Deep insight into thoughts, flexible, builds rapport.	Time-consuming, interviewer bias possible.
Focus Groups	Group discussions guided by a moderator.	Generates diverse opinions, stimulates discussion.	Social desirability bias, group dynamics may suppress dissent.
Participant Observation	Researcher actively engages in setting to observe behavior.	High ecological validity, contextual detail.	Risk of researcher bias, ethical issues of consent.
Non-Participant Observation	Researcher observes from outside.	Reduces interference, useful in public settings.	Limited insight into motives.
Case Studies	In-depth study of one individual or group.	Provides comprehensive understanding.	Not generalizable; prone to researcher bias.
Document and Content Analysis	Systematic analysis of existing records, media, or text.	Non-intrusive, historical context possible.	Interpretation bias, lack of context.

Ensuring Credibility in Data Collection

• Ensure ethical transparency—confidentiality, informed consent, and respect.
• Use triangulation: multiple sources/methods.
• Maintain reflexivity journals and field notes.
• Conduct member checks to verify participants’ perspectives.

📌 Notes

Nature and Purpose of Qualitative Research

• Often uses small, purposive samples rather than random ones.
• Focuses on understanding meaning, experience, and behavior rather than measuring variables.
• Based on naturalistic inquiry—studying participants in real-world settings.
• Data is textual (interviews, observations, documents), not numerical.
• Emphasizes depth over breadth, exploring how and why people think and behave in certain ways.

📌 Comparison with Quantitative Research

Aspect	Qualitative Research	Quantitative Research
Goal	Explore meanings, understand experiences	Test hypotheses, measure variables
Data Type	Words, images, narratives	Numbers, statistics
Analysis	Thematic, interpretive	Statistical, inferential
Validity Concept	Credibility, transferability	Internal and external validity
Researcher Role	Active participant, reflexive	Objective observer
Outcome	Theory generation	Theory testing

Credibility and Reflexivity

• Credibility achieved through:
  • Triangulation (multiple data sources)
  • Member checking (participants confirm interpretations)
  • Peer debriefing (external researcher reviews analysis)
• Reflexivity types:
  • Personal: how the researcher’s identity affects research.
  • Epistemological: how knowledge and methods shape outcomes.
  • Methodological: awareness of how design choices affect data.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

• Promotes participant voice and empowerment.
• Provides rich, detailed data that capture complexity of human behavior.
• Allows flexibility—research evolves with data.
• Enables study of sensitive or contextual issues difficult to quantify.

Limitations

• Subjectivity—interpretation may be influenced by researcher bias.
• Low generalizability due to small samples.
• Time-consuming data collection and analysis.
• Replication challenges—findings are context-specific
  
  Ethical Considerations
• Maintain informed consent, confidentiality, and participant welfare.
• Pay attention to power dynamics in interviews or focus groups.
• Avoid misrepresentation of participants’ experiences.
• Ensure honest reporting—don’t alter data to fit expectations.

📌 Notes

Globalization affects individual behaviour by exposing people to diverse cultural influences, values, and social norms.
This interaction may lead to changes in identity, behavioural adaptation, or psychological stress.

Psychologists study how globalization shapes:

• Cultural identity
• Mental health
• Consumption patterns
• Body image and self-concept
• Collectivism vs. individualism

Globalization can result in either acculturation (adaptation to global culture) or resistance (strengthened local identity).

📌Mechanisms of Globalization’s Influence

• Media and Communication:
  Global media spreads Western ideals of beauty, success, and lifestyle.
  → Influences self-perception, aspirations, and social comparison.
• Cultural Hybridization:
  Individuals blend global and local values (e.g., “glocal” identity).
  → Promotes creativity but may lead to identity confusion.
• Migration and Exposure:
  Increased mobility exposes individuals to new cultural norms.
  → Can result in biculturalism or stress.
• Consumerism:
  Global products (fashion, food, technology) create shared identity symbols.
  → Impacts self-expression and social belonging.
• Digital Identity:
  Social media allows identity experimentation and transnational communities.
  → Reinforces global connectivity and cultural diffusion.

📌 Key Studies

Becker et al. (2002) – Television and Eating Behaviour in Fiji

Aim:
To investigate the impact of Western media on eating attitudes and body image in Fijian adolescent girls.

Method:

• Naturalistic, quasi-experimental design.
• Studied 63 girls before and after TV introduction (1995–1998).
• Conducted interviews and administered eating attitude questionnaires.

Findings:

• Post-TV introduction: 11.3% reported purging for weight control.
• Increased body dissatisfaction and desire for thinness.
• Shift from traditional robust body ideals to Western standards.

Conclusion:
Exposure to global media can alter cultural norms and increase body-image-related disorders.

Evaluation:
✅ Strong ecological validity.
✅ Longitudinal design.
⚠️ Correlational—cannot establish causality.
⚠️ Ethical considerations: discussing eating disorders with adolescents.

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2️⃣ Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014) – Marginalization and Identity in Globalizing Japan

Aim:
To study how globalization affects identity conflict in Japanese youth.

Method:

• Surveys with university students measuring cultural identity, motivation, and social marginalization.
• Compared those identifying strongly with Japanese culture vs. global culture.

Findings:

• “Marginalized youth” (low connection to both local and global culture) reported low motivation and higher stress.
• Identifying with global culture correlated with independence and self-expression, but alienation from traditional norms.

Conclusion:
Globalization may lead to identity conflict when individuals feel disconnected from both cultures.

Evaluation:
✅ Large sample; quantitative and qualitative mix.
✅ Relevant to modern youth culture.
⚠️ Self-report bias.
⚠️ Cultural specificity—results may not generalize outside Japan.

📌 Notes

Acculturation occurs when individuals are exposed to a new culture, typically through migration, globalization, or intercultural exchange.
It can influence mental health, identity, and behavior.

John Berry’s (2004) model identifies four acculturation strategies — assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization — depending on how individuals manage relationships with both their home and host cultures.

📌 Key Studies

1️⃣ Berry (2004) – Acculturation Framework

Aim:
To explain cultural adaptation through interaction between two or more cultural groups.

Model:
Four acculturation strategies:

1. Assimilation
2. Integration
3. Separation
4. Marginalization

Conclusion:

• Integration often leads to the best psychological outcomes.
• Marginalization is linked to the highest stress and poor adjustment.

Evaluation:
✅ Widely applicable theoretical model.
⚠️ Lacks consideration of individual variability.

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2️⃣ Lueck & Wilson (2010) – Acculturative Stress in Asian Immigrants to the U.S.

Aim:
To investigate factors predicting acculturative stress in Asian immigrants.

Method:

• 2,095 Asian-Americans interviewed (half born overseas).
• Measured language proficiency, discrimination, social support, family cohesion.

Findings:

• 70% experienced acculturative stress.
• Lower stress linked to strong bilingualism and social support.
• Higher stress linked to discrimination and weak cultural ties.

Conclusion:
Acculturation stress depends on coping mechanisms and cultural integration.

Evaluation:
✅ Large, diverse sample.
✅ High ecological validity.
⚠️ Self-report bias.

📌 Notes

Enculturation explains how individuals acquire their cultural identity through interaction and observation within their environment.
It is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues throughout life, influencing beliefs, values, and behavior.

Through direct tuition, observational learning, and participation, individuals internalize what is appropriate in their society.
Enculturation connects to social cognitive theory (Bandura), as much of cultural learning occurs through modeling and reinforcement.

📌 Key Studies

1️⃣ Odden & Rochat (2004) – Observational Learning and Enculturation in Samoa

Aim:
To investigate how Samoan children acquire cultural norms about fishing and social hierarchy without direct instruction.

Method:

• Naturalistic observation and semi-structured interviews.
• 28 children in a rural Samoan community.

Findings:

• Children learned by observing adults and other children, not through direct teaching.
• Cultural norms (respect, hierarchy, fishing skills) were learned by modeling behavior and trial-and-error.

Conclusion:
Enculturation occurs through observational learning, supporting social cognitive theory.

Evaluation:
✅ Ecologically valid and culturally grounded.
⚠️ Limited generalizability; small sample.
✅ Highlights importance of social context in learning.

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2️⃣ Fagot (1978) – Parental Influence on Gender Enculturation

Aim:
To examine how parents reinforce gender-specific behavior.

Method:

• Observed parents of toddlers in their homes.
• Recorded reactions to gender-consistent and inconsistent behaviors.

Findings:

• Parents rewarded gender-consistent behaviors (e.g., girls playing with dolls).
• Negative reactions when behavior did not match gender norms.

Conclusion:
Enculturation of gender roles is reinforced through operant conditioning and direct tuition.

Evaluation:
✅ Real-world setting.
✅ Demonstrates early influence of gatekeepers.
⚠️ Western sample may limit cultural diversity.

📌 Notes

Cultural dimensions provide a systematic framework for comparing cultures.
Developed by Geert Hofstede (1980) after analyzing IBM employees in over 50 countries, the theory identifies underlying value dimensions that shape behavior, cognition, and social norms.

Psychologists later applied these dimensions to understand:

How these differences affect cross-cultural interactions in education, health, and organizations.

How cultural values influence thinking, emotion, and communication,

Why decision-making, conformity, and conflict resolution differ across societies, and

📌 Key Studies

1️⃣ Hofstede (1980) – Cultural Dimensions Framework

Aim:
To identify fundamental cultural value differences across countries.

Method:

• Surveyed 117,000 IBM employees in over 50 countries.
• Used factor analysis to identify clusters of related cultural values.

Findings:

• Revealed four primary dimensions: Individualism–Collectivism, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity–Femininity (later expanded to six).

Conclusion:

• Each culture emphasizes certain dimensions more strongly, shaping communication, thinking, and relationships.

Evaluation:
✅ Large, cross-national sample.
✅ Provided measurable cultural comparisons.
⚠️ Sample bias – all corporate employees.
⚠️ Oversimplification – cultures are dynamic, not fixed.

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2️⃣ Berry (1967) – Individualism–Collectivism and Conformity

Aim:
To investigate whether conformity levels are related to individualism vs. collectivism.

Method:

• Used an Asch-style conformity task.
• Compared the Temne people of Sierra Leone (collectivist, agricultural society) with Inuit (Eskimo) from Canada (individualist, hunting society).

Findings:

• Temne participants showed higher conformity than Inuit.
• Suggests that collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony, while individualist cultures value independence.

Conclusion:

• Cultural values influence social behavior and conformity.

Evaluation:
✅ High cross-cultural relevance.
✅ Culturally grounded task.
⚠️ Potential translation issues.
⚠️ Task may have varied cultural meanings.

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📌 Notes

Culture provides a framework through which individuals interpret reality and make cognitive judgments.
It affects how we think, remember, perceive, and make decisions.

Psychologists study this interaction to understand:

• How cognition is shaped by cultural values, and
• How behavior reflects cultural expectations.

Cross-cultural studies reveal both universal cognitive mechanisms and culture-specific variations in memory, perception, and reasoning.

📌 Key Studies

1️⃣ Cole & Scribner (1974) – Memory and Culture

Aim:
To investigate how memory strategies differ between Liberian and U.S. schoolchildren.

Method:

• Compared free recall tasks using culturally relevant and irrelevant word lists.
• Liberian children either attended school or did not.

Findings:

• U.S. children and schooled Liberian children used categorization and chunking (strategic recall).
• Non-schooled Liberian children recalled items based on meaningful clustering (narrative themes).

Conclusion:

• Schooling and cultural context influence cognitive processes like memory organization.

Evaluation:
✅ Demonstrated cultural effects on cognition.
⚠️ Potential confound: education vs. culture.
✅ Highlighted ecological validity using culturally relevant stimuli.

2️⃣ Kearins (1981) – Visual Memory in Aboriginal Australians

Aim:
To compare visual memory performance between Indigenous Australian and White Australian children.

Method:

• Participants arranged 20 objects on a board. After removal, they were asked to reconstruct the layout.

Findings:

• Aboriginal children showed significantly higher spatial memory accuracy.

Conclusion:

• Environmental demands (e.g., navigation in the desert) shape cognitive abilities.

Evaluation:
✅ Cross-cultural relevance; minimized cultural bias.
⚠️ Task may still reflect testing bias.
✅ Supported the idea that culture molds cognitive development.

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