6.3 CLIMATE CHANGE: MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION
📌 Definitions Table
| Term | Definition (Exam-Ready, 2 Marks) |
|---|---|
| Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | Climate action plans submitted by countries under the Paris Agreement, outlining targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. |
| Carbon Leakage | The transfer of emissions from one country to another due to the relocation of carbon-intensive industries to areas with weaker climate policies. |
| Levees | Man-made embankments built along rivers or coastlines to prevent flooding of adjacent land areas. |
| Zoning Regulations | Land-use planning laws that control how land in specific areas can be developed, often used to reduce climate or disaster risks. |
| Building Codes | Standards that govern the design and construction of buildings to ensure safety, resilience, and energy efficiency in the face of environmental challenges. |
- 🧠 Exam Tips:
For policy terms like NDCs or carbon leakage, always link to international climate efforts.
For infrastructure terms, highlight risk reduction or resilience benefits.
📌 Global Action and Decarbonisation
Importance of global action
- Climate change affects the entire planet
- Therefore, coordinated global action is essential
- Actions by individual countries and states are insufficient to address the global nature of climate change
- This means that international cooperation is necessary for effective climate action
State sovereignty and international cooperation
- State sovereignty: the principle that each country has the authority to govern itself without external interference
- Climate change crosses national borders, requiring countries to work together and often requiring countries to compromise some of their sovereignty
- International cooperation is achieved through negotiations, protocols, conventions and treaties
Key UN treaties and protocols
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1992:
- Established at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
- Framework for international efforts to address climate change
- Encouraged developed countries to lead in reducing emissions and supporting developing countries
- Kyoto Protocol, 1997:
- First major international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
- Set legally binding targets for developed countries to reduce emissions
- Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, 2012:
- Extended the Kyoto Protocol beyond 2012
- Set new emission reduction targets for developed countries for 2013-2020
- Encourages further international cooperation and support for developing countries on how to adapt to climate change
- Paris Agreement (2015):
- Aim: limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C
- Nearly all countries have committed to reducing their emissions
- Countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate action plans
- Set a mechanism for regular review and enhancement of NDCs every five years
International cooperation mechanisms
- Negotiations: countries discuss and agree on common goals, commitments and actions to tackle climate change
- Protocols and conventions: formal agreements that outline specific commitments and actions countries must take
- Sanctions: tools like cross-border carbon taxes can be used to encourage compliance and ensure countries adhere to climate policies
- A cross-border carbon tax is a levy imposed on imported goods based on the carbon emissions produced during their manufacture
- These taxes aims to equalise the cost of carbon between countries with different climate policies
- They encourage global reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and help reduce carbon leakage
Decarbonisation
What is decarbonisation?
- Reducing or ending the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) that emit carbon dioxide when burned
- Transitioning to renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, hydro and geothermal energy
Carbon neutrality
- Achieving net-zero carbon emissions
- This means balancing the amount of emitted CO2 with an equivalent amount of CO2 removal
- Methods to achieve this include:
- Reducing emissions
- Enhancing carbon sinks (e.g. forests)
- Using technologies like carbon capture and storage (CCS)
- Methods to achieve this include:
Targets for carbon neutrality
- Different countries have set varied dates for achieving carbon neutrality, for example:
- UK: by 2050
- China: by 2060
- Germany: by 2045
- These targets are crucial for meeting global climate goals and are part of each country’s NDC under the Paris Agreement
Steps towards decarbonisation
- Transitioning to renewable energy:
- Solar, wind, hydro and geothermal energy
- Energy efficiency:
- Improving efficiency of energy and lowering energy waste in buildings, transportation and industry
- Electrification:
- Using electricity (preferably from renewable sources) for heating, cooking and transportation
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS):
- Capture: capturing CO2 emissions directly from sources like power plants and industrial processes
- Transport: once captured, CO2 is compressed and transported, typically via pipelines, to a storage site
- Storage: CO2 is injected deep underground, where it is securely stored
🔍 TOK Tip: How can scientific uncertainty influence climate policy decisions?
Real-world examples
European Union (EU) Green Deal
- Objective: aimed at making Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050
- Policies:
- Carbon border adjustment mechanism: introduces a carbon tax on imports to prevent “carbon leakage” and ensure fair competition for EU industries that have stricter climate regulations
- Renewable energy expansion: sets targets for increasing the share of renewable energy sources in the EU’s energy mix
- Energy efficiency: promotes energy-efficient technologies and practices across various sectors
Norway’s renewable energy initiatives
- Achievement: Norway generates nearly 100% of its electricity from renewable sources, primarily hydropower
- Incentives for electric vehicles (EVs):
- Offers incentives for purchasing electric vehicles, including tax exemptions, toll reductions and free parking
- Climate policies:
- Plans to phase out fossil fuel-based vehicles by 2025, contributing significantly to reducing transportation emissions
📌 Climate Change Mitigation
- Climate change mitigation is now of crucial importance for human societies
- Mitigation strategies focus on reducing and stabilising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
- Climate change mitigation includes:
- Reducing GHG emissions at their source
- Developing techniques to remove GHGs from the atmosphere
Mitigation Strategies to Reduce GHGs
| Mitigation Strategy | How to Implement Strategy |
|---|---|
| Reduction of Energy Consumption | Implement energy efficiency measures such as insulation, efficient lighting and higher efficiency appliancesPromote smart grids and energy management systemsSupport energy-efficient industrial processes |
| Transport Policies | Implement fuel efficiency standards for vehiclesImplement policies to promote electric vehicles, hybrid cars and fuel-efficient transportation systemsInvest in public transportation infrastructure to reduce reliance on individual car usageEncourage sustainable transportation options like public transit, cycling, and walking |
| Reduction of Emissions from Agriculture | Implement agricultural practices to minimise nitrogen oxides and methane emissionsPromote sustainable livestock management techniques such as improved feed quality, methane capture systems and rotational grazing |
| Use of Alternatives to Fossil Fuels | Transition to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro and geothermal energyPromote electric vehicles (EVs) and support the development of charging infrastructureInvest in research and development of biofuels, hydrogen and nuclear energy |
| Geoengineering | Explore solar radiation management techniques like stratospheric aerosol injection to reflect sunlight back into space |
| Carbon Tax | Implement a tax on carbon emissions to incentivise reduction in GHG emissions |
| Natural carbon Sinks (e.g. forestation, rewilding) | Afforestation and reforestation, promote rewilding initiatives, restore degraded ecosystems, and protect existing forests to increase carbon sinks |
| Carbon Capture and Storage | Carbon removal techniques such as direct air capture (DAC) to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphereDevelop and deploy technologies to capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial and energy processesStore captured carbon dioxide underground or in other long-term repositories |
📌 Climate Change Adaptation
- As the impacts of climate change increase, it is essential to implement adaptation strategies to reduce adverse effects and maximise any potential positive outcomes
- Climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience and adapting to changing climate conditions
Climate Change Adaptation Strategies
| Adaptation Strategy | How to Implement Strategy |
|---|---|
| Flood Defences | Construct and reinforce flood protection infrastructure (levees, flood barriers, coastal defences)Implement sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) to manage and control excess water during heavy rainfall eventsRestore and preserve natural floodplains, wetlands, and mangroves as natural buffers against flooding |
| Vaccination Programmes | Develop and implement proactive public health measures, including vaccination programsStrengthen disease surveillance systems to monitor and respond to climate-related health impacts, such as the spread of vector-borne diseases in new regions |
| Desalination Plants | Invest in desalination technologies to increase freshwater availability in water-scarce regionsEnsure sustainability through energy-efficient methods, renewable energy use and responsible environmental management |
| Planting of Crops in Previously Unsuitable Areas | Expand cultivation into areas now suitable due to shifting climate patternsDiversify crop varieties to adapt to new environmental conditions and enhance food security |
| Adapting Agricultural Practices | Promote adoption of drought-resistant crops and resilient crop varietiesImplement soil management techniques to conserve water and nutrients in changing climate conditions |
| Land Zoning and Building Code Changes | Update zoning regulations to consider climate risks like sea-level rise and extreme weather eventsE.g. restrict development in areas prone to flooding or require elevated construction; limit development along vulnerable coastlinesStrengthen building codes to enhance resilience against hurricanes, floods, wildfires and heatwavesE.g. enforce building materials and landscaping practices that reduce fire risk; promote green spaces and reflective building materials to mitigate urban heat islands |
- Adaptation plans are strategies designed to help individuals, communities and societies cope with the impacts of climate change
- These plans aim to:
- Reduce vulnerability to climate-related hazards
- Increase resilience to climate change impacts
National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs)
What are NAPAs?
- NAPAs are plans developed by Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and prioritise urgent adaptation needs
- These plans are submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
- They focus on immediate actions to address climate change impacts, particularly in sectors like agriculture, water resources and health
- For example:
- Bangladesh: has implemented NAPA projects to improve flood forecasting and early warning systems
- Malawi: has developed strategies to enhance food security through drought-resistant crops and sustainable land management
Resilience and adaptation plans
- Resilience plans aim to strengthen the ability of communities and ecosystems to recover from climate shocks
- Adaptation plans focus on long-term strategies to adjust to changing climate conditions
- For example:
- New York City One NYC plan: includes measures to protect against coastal flooding and enhance green infrastructure
- Netherlands Delta Programme: involves constructing robust flood defences and adaptive water management systems to protect against sea-level rise
- UK Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) identifies key risks and adaptation priorities, such as flood risk management and resilient infrastructure
UN Development Programme (UNDP)
Role of UNDP
- The UNDP helps developing countries create and implement adaptation plans
- Provides technical and financial support to address the most imminent impacts of climate change
- Process:
- Assess local vulnerabilities and climate risks
- Develop action plans prioritising urgent needs
- Implement projects with community involvement
- For example:
- Samoa, with UNDP support, has improved its coastal infrastructure to protect communities from storm surges
- Bhutan has developed climate-resilient agricultural practices to adapt to changing weather patterns